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Key Concepts

• Hundred Years' War: A prolonged conflict between England and France from 1337 to 1453, primarily over dynastic claims to the French throne and territorial disputes.
• Dynastic Claims: The basis of the war, stemming from English kings' claims to the French throne through lineage.
• Territorial Disputes: Conflicts over control of French territories held by English monarchs, particularly Gascony.
• Emergence of National Identity: The war fostered a sense of distinct national identity in both England and France.
• Military Innovations: Introduction of new weapons and tactics, such as the longbow and dismounted knights, challenging the dominance of feudal cavalry.
• Key Battles: Crécy (1346), Poitiers (1356), Agincourt (1415), Castillon (1453).
• Black Death: A devastating pandemic that significantly impacted the course of the war by causing widespread death and disruption.
• Joan of Arc: A pivotal figure who inspired French resistance and turned the tide of the war in favor of France.
• Treaties: Several treaties, including the Treaty of Brétigny (1360) and the Treaty of Troyes (1420), attempted to resolve the conflict but ultimately failed to achieve lasting peace.
• War of the Roses: A subsequent civil war in England that began shortly after the end of the Hundred Years' War, stemming from internal power struggles.

Origins of the Conflict

The Hundred Years' War, officially beginning in 1337, had roots stretching back centuries. A key early event was the establishment of the Duchy of Normandy in 911 when the King of West Francia granted land to Vikings. The Norman Conquest of England in 1066, led by William the Conqueror, a vassal of the French king, created a complex feudal relationship. The English king, now also Duke of Normandy, was technically subordinate to the French king, a situation that bred resentment and fear of English influence in France.

Over time, English monarchs, through the Angevin Empire, controlled vast territories in France, exceeding the direct holdings of the French king. This led to continuous conflict, with French kings gradually reclaiming these lands through wars like the Conquest of Normandy (1214), the Saintonge War (1242), and the War of Saint-Sardos (1324). By the early 14th century, English holdings in France were largely reduced to Gascony.

Simultaneously, France faced a succession crisis. The Capetian dynasty ended in 1328 with the death of Charles IV without a male heir. Edward III of England, as Charles IV's nephew through his mother Isabella, had a strong claim to the French throne. However, French nobility invoked Salic Law, which barred female inheritance, and crowned Philip VI, a cousin, instead. This dynastic dispute, coupled with the ongoing territorial conflict over Gascony, provided the immediate spark for the war.

Early English Dominance and Key Battles

Despite France's larger population and perceived military advantage, England achieved significant early successes. The Battle of Sluys (1340) was a decisive naval victory for England, giving them control of the English Channel and shifting the war's theater entirely to France.

The Battle of Crécy (1346) marked a turning point in military tactics. The English, under Edward III and his son, the Black Prince, utilized longbowmen effectively against French knights. The English positioned themselves defensively on advantageous terrain, using natural obstacles and stakes to disrupt French cavalry charges. The French, despite their numerical superiority and eagerness for battle, suffered a catastrophic defeat, losing thousands of knights and nobles. This battle highlighted the obsolescence of traditional feudal cavalry tactics against disciplined archers and well-chosen defensive positions.

Following Crécy, England continued to press its advantage, capturing Calais after an 11-month siege and defeating the Scots at the Battle of Neville's Cross (1346), capturing King David II. This period (1346-1347) is considered a high point for English fortunes in the war.

The Black Death, which began to spread widely in the late 1340s, forced a temporary cessation of hostilities as both nations grappled with the devastating pandemic.

The Black Prince and the Treaty of Brétigny

After the Black Death subsided, hostilities resumed. The Battle of Poitiers (1356), led by Edward the Black Prince, resulted in another crushing French defeat and the capture of King John II of France and his son. This victory led to the Treaty of Brétigny (1360), which was highly favorable to England. Under this treaty, England gained significant territorial concessions in southwestern France, and France agreed to a large ransom for its king and the provision of hostages. In return, Edward III renounced his claim to the French throne. This marked the end of the first phase of the war, characterized by English dominance.

French Counter-Offensive and the Rise of Bertrand du Guesclin

The period following the Treaty of Brétigny saw France begin to recover under King Charles V. He appointed Bertrand du Guesclin as Constable of France, who implemented a strategy of attrition and avoidance of large-scale pitched battles. This "scorched earth" policy, combined with French naval support from Castile, gradually eroded English gains. The English suffered a significant naval defeat at La Rochelle (1372), and their land campaigns, like John of Gaunt's chevauchée in 1373, proved costly and largely unsuccessful due to French avoidance tactics and logistical challenges. By 1374, English control in France was reduced to Calais and Gascony.

Internal turmoil in both England (death of the Black Prince and Edward III, succession of the young Richard II) and France (death of Charles V and Bertrand du Guesclin, succession of the young Charles VI) led to a period of truce, culminating in the Treaty of Leulingham (1389), a three-year truce.

The Lancastrian Phase and the Battle of Agincourt

The late 14th and early 15th centuries were marked by internal instability in both kingdoms. In England, Richard II was overthrown by Henry IV in 1399, leading to the Lancastrian dynasty. In France, Charles VI suffered from mental illness, leading to a power struggle between the Armagnac and Burgundian factions.

Henry V of England seized this opportunity to renew English claims to the French throne. The Battle of Agincourt (1415) was a stunning English victory against a numerically superior French force. Similar to Crécy, the English, under Henry V, utilized longbowmen and defensive tactics on a narrow, muddy battlefield. The French knights, eager for revenge for past defeats, charged into a hail of arrows and became bogged down in the mud, leading to a devastating rout. The French suffered immense casualties, including many nobles, while English losses were minimal.

The victory at Agincourt paved the way for further English conquests. The Burgundians, seeking to gain an advantage in their civil war, allied with the English. This alliance led to the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which disinherited the French Dauphin (later Charles VII) and named Henry V as regent and heir to the French throne.

The Turning Tide and Joan of Arc

Despite the Treaty of Troyes, French resistance continued, particularly in the south. The deaths of Henry V and Charles VI in 1422 left an infant, Henry VI, as the nominal king of both England and France. However, the French Dauphin, Charles VII, was crowned King of France and rallied support.

The siege of Orléans in 1428 marked a critical moment. The English were close to capturing the city, which would have severely weakened French morale and strategic position. It was at this point that Joan of Arc, a peasant girl claiming divine guidance, emerged. Her arrival inspired the demoralized French troops, leading to the lifting of the siege of Orléans in 1429. This victory was followed by a series of French successes along the Loire River, culminating in the coronation of Charles VII at Reims.

Although Joan of Arc was captured by the Burgundians in 1430 and subsequently executed by the English as a heretic, her impact was profound. Her actions galvanized French nationalism and demonstrated that the English were not invincible.

The Final French Victory

The Burgundians eventually switched their allegiance back to the French crown in 1435, a crucial turning point. This allowed Charles VII to reorganize the French army and government, creating a professional standing army and a more centralized state. The French adopted a strategy of attrition, combined with the effective use of artillery, to gradually reconquer lost territories.

Key French victories, such as the Battle of Formigny (1450) and the Siege of Castillon (1453), effectively ended English military power on the continent. The Battle of Castillon, in particular, saw the French decisively defeat the English using artillery to great effect, marking the final major engagement of the war. By the end of the war in 1453, England had lost all its continental possessions except for Calais.

The Hundred Years' War had profound consequences, including the decline of feudalism, the rise of national identities, and significant advancements in military technology and tactics. It also left England weakened and embroiled in its own internal conflict, the Wars of the Roses, shortly thereafter.