Key Concepts
- Relocation and Termination Era: A period in U.S. federal Indian policy (1950s-1960s) focused on assimilating Native Americans by relocating them to cities and terminating the government's nation-to-nation relationship with tribes.
- Urban Indian Relocation Program: A program initiated in 1952 by the BIA to encourage Native Americans to move to major cities with promises of jobs, housing, and education.
- Termination Act (1953): Legislation that aimed to end federal recognition of Native American tribes, dissolve reservations, and cut off federal support.
- Assimilation: The process of absorbing a distinct culture into a dominant culture.
- Sovereignty: The right to self-govern.
- Menominee Enterprises, Inc.: A corporation created to manage tribal property after the Menominee Tribe's termination.
- DRUMS (Determination of Rights and Unity for Menominee Stockholders): A group that organized to restore federal recognition to the Menominee Tribe.
- Restoration: The process of regaining federal recognition after termination.
Introduction: The Menominee Tribe as a Target
The Menominee Tribe of Wisconsin became a target for termination in 1952 due to their recent success. They had won an $8.5 million settlement from the U.S. government and had control over their profitable logging operations. This perceived success made them seem "ready" for termination.
The Relocation and Termination Era: An Overview
The Relocation and Termination Era marked a shift in federal Indian policy towards assimilation. This involved two main strategies:
- Relocation: Encouraging Native Americans to move to cities for work and life.
- Termination: Ending the government's nation-to-nation relationship with tribes, dissolving reservations, and cutting off federal support.
This era was driven by the U.S. government's desire to cut costs after World War II by reducing funding for the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA).
The Urban Indian Relocation Program
The Urban Indian Relocation Program, initiated in 1952, promised Native Americans jobs, housing, and education in major cities. The Indian Relocation Act later offered to pay for moving costs, job training, and health insurance. However, this program led to cultural displacement and assimilation, as Native Americans left their communities and cultures behind.
The Termination Act of 1953
The Termination Act aimed to end federal recognition of Native American tribes, making them "subject to the same laws" as other U.S. citizens. In practice, this meant dissolving reservations, ending tribal governments, and cutting off federal support. The goal was to eliminate the government's responsibility to provide services to Native nations.
Opposition and Alternative Proposals
The National Congress of American Indians (NCAI) opposed termination and proposed a government assistance program to help Native nations achieve self-sustainability. However, this plan was not implemented, and termination became the dominant federal Indian policy.
The Menominee Tribe: A Case Study in Termination
The Menominee Tribe was one of the first to be targeted for termination. Senator Arthur V. Watkins persuaded tribal members to vote in favor of receiving their settlement money, but this vote was attached to a provision that essentially meant termination.
The termination process involved transferring tribal property to Menominee Enterprises, Inc., a corporation with limited tribal control. The reservation became Menominee County, which quickly became one of the poorest in Wisconsin. The county's hospital shut down, schools and utilities deteriorated, and many Menominee lost their jobs. The corporation faced bankruptcy within seven years, and many tribal members were forced to sell their land.
Termination in California
In 1958, 44 tribes in California were terminated. The government promised to improve infrastructure before termination but failed to keep those promises. Tribes were forced to sell or give up their lands. For example, the United Auburn Indian Community of the Auburn Ranchería saw their land dwindle from 40 acres to just 2.8 acres.
The Impact of Relocation and Termination
During the 1950s and 1960s, 109 nations were terminated, wiping away federal protections for 1.3 million acres of Native land and affecting 11,000 people. Termination accelerated relocation, as tribal members moved to cities in search of opportunities. However, they often faced scarce jobs, housing discrimination, racism, and social isolation.
Native Resistance and Restoration
Despite the challenges, Native Americans resisted termination and fought for restoration. The Menominee Tribe created Menominee Indian Tribe of Wisconsin, Inc. in 1962 to preserve their name. In 1970, DRUMS organized to regain federal recognition. Led by Ada Deer and James Washinawatok, the Menominee Tribe was restored by an act of Congress in 1973. Ada Deer later became the first woman to lead the Menominee and the first Native woman to lead the BIA.
Ada Deer stated, "Against all odds, we invented a new policy, restoration... You don’t have to accept the policies; you can work to change them."
Other Examples of Restoration and Recognition
The Klamath Tribe regained federal recognition in 1986. Some tribes have gained state recognition, such as the Gabrielino-Tongva Indian Tribe in California. However, many tribes terminated in the 1950s and 1960s remain without state or federal recognition.
Conclusion: The Legacy of Relocation and Termination
Relocation and termination were attempts to assimilate Native Americans, break up Native nations, and cut costs. These policies separated Native Americans from their cultures and communities and had devastating consequences. While many Native nations have fought for and achieved restoration, the scars of this era are still felt today.
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