Key Concepts
Anthropology, Archaeology, Colonialism, Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA), Decolonized Archaeology/Anthropology, Cultural Appropriation, Indigenous Sovereignty, Ethical Research Practices, Repatriation, American Indian Movement (AIM).
Early Anthropology and its Colonial Roots
Anthropology, the study of humanity, and its subfield archaeology, the study of past humans through material remains, originated from European colonial endeavors. Early anthropologists often positioned themselves as objective observers while treating Indigenous peoples as specimens. This led to the exploitation of Native lands and bodies, including the excavation of graves. Between the 1780s and 1970s, an estimated 600,000 to over 1 million Native graves were dug up in the U.S. Figures like Thomas Jefferson participated in these activities, driven by curiosity rather than respect. By the 19th century, the acquisition of Native remains became a lucrative business, with skulls fetching $3-5 (equivalent to $99-165 today). Museums competed to expand their collections, often believing they were preserving the history of a "vanishing" race. Native bodies were even displayed alongside dinosaur fossils, reflecting a dehumanizing perspective.
The Dark Legacy of Grave Robbing and Scientific Racism
The collection of Native artifacts and remains extended beyond scientific research, becoming a hobby for various individuals, including doctors, society ladies, and even Boy Scouts. Some anthropologists sought Native remains to measure skulls and promote false claims of white superiority. Aleš Hrdlička, a Czech anthropologist, stole the remains of 800 Koniag people and amassed nearly 20,000 skulls by his death in 1943. William McGee, the first president of the American Anthropological Association, even described Native Americans as "strikingly close to sub-human species." Even Franz Boas, despite advocating for cultural relativism, believed that digging up Native remains was necessary for scientific understanding, stating, "It is most unpleasant work to steal bones from a grave but [...] someone has to do it.”
The Case of Minik and the Exploitation of Living Native People
The biases of early anthropology extended to living Native people. Minik and other Inuit were brought to New York and housed in the Museum of Natural History, where they were studied and displayed. Four of them died from tuberculosis, including Minik's father, Qisuk. A fake funeral was staged for Qisuk, while his actual body was dissected and studied by Hrdlička. Minik spent his life petitioning for the return of his father's remains, even appealing to President Theodore Roosevelt, but was repeatedly denied. He died during the 1918 flu pandemic without seeing his father's remains returned. Minik's story exemplifies the dehumanizing treatment of Native people as objects of study. The Smithsonian still holds 18,500 ancestral remains, many collected by Hrdlička.
Native Resistance and the Rise of NAGPRA
Early anthropologists often sought to "salvage" Native cultures, which Vernon Finley, director of the Kootenai Culture Committee, equates to "steal." Anthropologists often misinterpreted Elders' stories and failed to treat them as partners. The American Indian Movement (AIM) emerged in the late 1960s, protesting the exploitation of Native people and demanding the return of ancestral remains. This activism led to legal changes, including the National Historic Preservation Act (1966) and the Archaeological Resources and Protection Act (1979), which provided greater protection for Native archaeological sites. The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA) of 1990 aimed to return artifacts and ancestral remains to their rightful tribes. Museums were required to consult with tribes, and federal agencies had to follow specific procedures for handling future discoveries.
Challenges and the Path Towards Decolonized Anthropology
Despite NAGPRA, between 300,000 and 600,000 remains are still held in museums. The law only applies to institutions receiving federal funding, and difficulties in determining tribal affiliation are often used as excuses for retaining remains. A collaboration between archaeologists and the Makah Tribe in the Pacific Northwest demonstrated the potential for respectful excavations. The Makah retained all 55,000 unearthed artifacts and curated them at the Makah Cultural and Research Center. Decolonized archaeology and anthropology, described as "with, for, and by Indigenous people," prioritize Native sovereignty, knowledge, and perspectives. This approach involves collaboration and respects tribal members' interpretations, ensuring Native people control their heritage. Linda Tuhiwai Smith emphasizes that research is transformed when Indigenous people become the researchers.
Conclusion
Archaeology and anthropology have a history of harming Indigenous peoples, both living and dead. While progress has been made through legislation like NAGPRA and the rise of Indigenous activism, significant challenges remain. Indigenous anthropologists are working to create a more just field that respects the past and serves the future of Native communities. In 2021, the American Anthropological Association issued an apology for the harm it has done historically. Minik's father's body was eventually returned to his ancestral homeland in 1993, highlighting the ongoing struggle for repatriation and justice.
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