The Native Civil Rights Movement: Ep 15 of Crash Course Native American History

Crash Course Native American History: The Self-Determination Era

Key Concepts:

• Alcatraz Occupation (1969-1971)
• Self-Determination Era (late 1960s - present)
• Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975
• Tribal Sovereignty
• Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)
• Trust Relationship
• Assimilation
• Indian Child Welfare Act of 1978
• Tribal Self-Governance

Introduction: Alcatraz and the Catalyst for Change

Alcatraz Island, formerly a symbol of confinement, became the site of a pivotal event in Native American history. The occupation of Alcatraz by the "Indians of All Tribes" for 19 months, starting in November 1969, served as a catalyst for significant change in the relationship between the U.S. government and Native nations.

The Preceding Era: Broken Treaties and Termination

Prior to the Alcatraz occupation, relations between the U.S. government and Native Americans were strained due to broken treaties, forced removals, assimilation attempts, and the Termination Era, which reversed previous agreements.

The Alcatraz Occupation: A Turning Point

The occupation of Alcatraz, led by figures like Richard Oakes, put pressure on the U.S. government to address Native American grievances. Oakes stated that the government had a choice: to use violence or to institute real change.

Nixon's Response: The Dawn of Self-Determination

In response to the growing pressure, President Richard Nixon announced a new policy focused on returning power to tribal authorities and reaffirming Native sovereignty. This marked the beginning of the Self-Determination Era.

Defining the Self-Determination Era

The Self-Determination Era is characterized by Native American activism aimed at:

• Honoring previous treaties
• Gaining more autonomy over governance
• Controlling resources on tribal lands

The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) and the Trust Relationship

For decades, the U.S. government, through the BIA, maintained a "trust relationship" with Native nations, managing their welfare. However, many tribes sought self-governance.

The Zuni Nation Example

The Zuni Nation of New Mexico, in the early 1960s, found a legal loophole to take control of community services typically managed by the BIA, replacing federal employees with elected tribal leaders. Nixon cited the Zuni's success as a model for self-determination.

The Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975

Nixon's proposal materialized into the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, which remains the driving policy behind U.S./tribal relations as of 2024.

Implications of Self-Determination

Self-determination grants Native nations more control over social services like schools, first responders, and healthcare clinics. While the federal government maintains oversight, it is no longer fully in charge. The federal government is also required to consult with Native nations on policies that directly involve them.

Education: From Assimilation to Cultural Preservation

The era of self-determination has allowed tribes to take over BIA-run schools, transforming them from assimilation centers to places of community and healing.

• Example: Riverside Indian School (Oklahoma): Formerly enforced assimilation, now teaches Native history and culture, with former students returning as teachers.
• Yup'ik Elders in Alaska: Schools connect math curriculum to cultural knowledge, teaching geometry using a traditional salmon rack.
• Rock Point (Navajo Reservation, Arizona): All classes are taught in Navajo, revitalizing the language and improving student performance in math and English.

The Indian Child Welfare Act (ICWA) of 1978

The ICWA prioritizes placing Native children with relatives, tribal foster agencies, or other members of their Native nation. This was a response to the disproportionate removal of Native children from their homes and placement in non-Native families. Children raised by relatives are more likely to live in stable environments and succeed in education and employment.

Challenges and Criticisms of Self-Determination

• Loss of Federal Recognition: Tribes that lost federal recognition during the Termination Era were unable to access funding and grants under self-determination policies.
• Corruption and Mismanagement: A 1989 report by the Special Committee to Investigate American Indian Affairs found "fraud, corruption, and mismanagement" within the BIA and tribal governments.

Amendments to the Indian Self-Determination Act

Amendments to the original law, such as those passed in 1988, further protected tribal contracting and management of federal programs. Later amendments established Tribal Self-Governance as a permanent program within the DOI and DHHS, granting tribal leaders more oversight over funds.

The Legacy of Alcatraz and Ongoing Efforts

Jonny Bearcub, an original occupier of Alcatraz, stated that the occupation gave permission for Native people to stand up for their rights. The National Association of Food Distribution Programs on Indian Reservations advocates for better access to fresh and traditional foods.

Conclusion: Progress and Ongoing Struggles

Self-determination policies have provided Native nations with more control over governance, education, and child welfare. However, challenges remain, including unrecognized treaties, unceded lands, and legacies of injustice. The fight for a more just relationship between the U.S. government and Native nations continues.