The Cuban Missile Crisis - How nuclear war was avoided | DW Documentary

Key Concepts

• Cuban Missile Crisis (1962): A 13-day confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union concerning Soviet ballistic missile deployment in Cuba.
• Jupiter Missiles: Medium-range ballistic missiles deployed by the US in Turkey, armed with nuclear warheads, capable of reaching Moscow in 10 minutes.
• Operation Mongoose: A secret CIA/Department of Defense program launched in late 1961 to destabilize Cuban society, including economic sabotage, propaganda, and assassination plots against Fidel Castro.
• Operation Anadyr: The largest covert Soviet operation of the Cold War, aimed at secretly transporting nuclear missiles, tactical warheads, and military personnel to Cuba.
• ExComm (Executive Committee of the National Security Council): A body of US government officials convened by President Kennedy during the crisis to advise on potential responses.
• Naval Quarantine: The US naval blockade of Cuba, announced by President Kennedy, to prevent the delivery of offensive weapons to the island.
• DEFCON 2: The second-highest alert level in the US military, indicating a severe increase in force readiness, just below nuclear war.
• Vasili Arkhipov: A Soviet naval officer whose actions on submarine B-59 are credited with preventing a nuclear launch during the crisis.
• Moscow-Washington Hotline: A direct communication link established between the US and Soviet leaders after the crisis to prevent future misunderstandings.

1. Pre-Crisis Tensions and US Aggression

The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 brought the world to the brink of nuclear war. The narrative often credits US President John F. Kennedy with averting disaster, but the transcript highlights underlying US provocations. In fall 1961, the US stationed 15 Jupiter medium-range missiles near Izmir, Turkey. These missiles carried nuclear warheads with a destructive power 100 times greater than the Hiroshima bomb and could reach Moscow in just 10 minutes, posing an "intolerable provocation" to the USSR and its leader, Nikita Khrushchev.

The Cold War was peaking in 1961. A summit in Vienna between Khrushchev and Kennedy exacerbated tensions, particularly regarding Germany. Khrushchev demanded Western powers withdraw from West Berlin, an "exit point" for East Germans fleeing communism, but Kennedy refused. The issue of Cuba was even more contentious. Two years prior, Fidel Castro had seized power and forged close ties with the Soviet Union. Kennedy feared Castro's successful revolution would inspire neighboring countries and was determined to overthrow the Cuban regime.

In April 1961, the Bay of Pigs invasion, an attempt by US-trained Cuban exiles, ended in a "disastrous fiasco," with over 1,300 CIA-backed men killed, wounded, or captured. Khrushchev responded with a warning, promising "all necessary help" to Cuba. Kennedy then launched Operation Mongoose in late 1961, a secret CIA and Department of Defense mission with 400 agents and an annual budget of $50 million. This program aimed to destabilize Cuban society through economic sabotage, propaganda, and even plots to assassinate Fidel Castro (e.g., poisoned cigars). Military officers also devised scenarios for invading Cuba, including staging fake attacks in the US or sinking a refugee boat and blaming the Cubans.

While Kennedy focused on Cuba, Khrushchev agreed to East Germany's plan to seal off West Berlin, leading to the construction of the Berlin Wall in August 1961. This further fueled Khrushchev's outrage, especially given the US's significant nuclear superiority, possessing over 24,000 nuclear warheads compared to the USSR's just under 2,500.

2. Soviet Missile Deployment: Operation Anadyr

To compensate for the nuclear imbalance and protect Cuba, Khrushchev conceived the idea of deploying nuclear missiles on the island, metaphorically "putting one of our hedgehogs down the Americans trousers." His goals were twofold: protect Cuba and the Castro regime, and demonstrate to Kennedy that deploying medium-range missiles near the USSR would have consequences.

Fidel Castro agreed to the plan but wanted official cooperation, fearing international backlash and asserting Cuba's right to possess nuclear weapons given consistent US intervention. Khrushchev, however, insisted on utmost secrecy to avoid forcing the US's hand. In June 1962, Khrushchev convinced the Soviet Presidium, arguing that the US was planning to invade Cuba and needed to be shown that an attack would face not only Cuban resistance but also Soviet nuclear might.

Thus, Operation Anadyr was launched, the largest covert Soviet operation of the Cold War. Its objective was to secretly transport over 50,000 men, 40 long-range R12 and R14 nuclear missiles, 80 tactical nuclear warheads, state-of-the-art air defense systems, and numerous vehicles to Cuba. The cargo was concealed in commercial freighters, with soldiers and captains unaware of their destination until reaching the high seas. Submarines equipped with ballistic missiles were also to be stationed in Cuba.

3. US Discovery and Initial Response

Despite the secrecy, the new CIA Director, John McCone, appointed after the Bay of Pigs, quickly grew suspicious. In July 1962, he noted the unusual arrival of 21 Soviet cargo ships in Cuba. By August 10th, he warned Kennedy that the Soviets were preparing to station nuclear missiles. However, his warnings were largely dismissed by the White House, with Kennedy believing only anti-aircraft missiles were likely.

McCone persisted, sending "honeymoon cables" from his vacation, convinced of offensive missiles despite a contradictory CIA report. He finally convinced Kennedy to resume reconnaissance flights on October 9th. On October 14th, a Lockheed U2 aircraft took off from Tindle Air Force Base, Florida, equipped with special cameras. Its 928 photos provided "unmistakable evidence" of offensive missile launch sites in Cuba, capable of reaching the US and potentially armed with nuclear warheads.

National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy informed Kennedy on October 16th. Kennedy was "horrified," calling Khrushchev a "gangster and a liar" and blaming the CIA and US intelligence for their failure, except for McCone. The new situation, while not fundamentally altering the nuclear balance (USSR already had missiles that could reach the US), raised concerns about Castro's ability to attack and a potential Soviet move on Berlin.

Kennedy immediately convened the ExComm (Executive Committee of the National Security Council) on October 16th, including Vice President Johnson, Robert McNamara, Dean Rusk, and Robert Kennedy. Their meetings were secretly recorded. Initial discussions saw almost unanimous support for destroying Soviet facilities in Cuba, with scenarios ranging from a "surgical strike" to a larger attack or full invasion. Kennedy, however, was in the middle of his midterm election campaign and could not reveal the crisis publicly.

4. Escalation and Diplomatic Maneuvers

On October 18th, Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Gromyko, unaware of the missile deployment, met with Kennedy in Washington as part of a long-planned diplomatic visit. Gromyko assured Kennedy that Soviet aid to Cuba was purely defensive, a "smoke screen" orchestrated by Khrushchev. Kennedy maintained his composure, not revealing US knowledge of the missiles.

The next day, October 19th, Kennedy met with his Joint Chiefs of Staff. The generals argued that a surgical strike wouldn't guarantee complete destruction and advocated for a full invasion of Cuba. Kennedy rejected this, fearing Soviet retaliation and unable to justify aggression against a small country. He famously remarked, "These brass hats have one great advantage in their favor. If we listen to them and do what they want us to do, none of us will be alive later to tell them that they were wrong."

On October 20th and 21st, Kennedy announced his final decision: a naval blockade (quarantine) of Cuba to stop Soviet cargo ships. He argued this would avoid war and allow for controlled escalation. On October 22nd, after informing NATO allies, Kennedy delivered a radio and television address, revealing the "unmistakable evidence" of offensive missile sites in Cuba, demanding their removal, and announcing the quarantine. Soviet Ambassador Anatoly Dobrynin was informed an hour before the speech and was "stunned."

Global fear escalated, with panic buying and preparations for fallout shelters. Pope John XXIII made an urgent appeal for peace. On October 23rd, Khrushchev condemned the US action as a violation of the UN Charter and freedom of navigation, reiterating the defensive nature of the weapons and putting Eastern Bloc armed forces on high alert. The US military also mobilized, with over 40 ships heading to the Caribbean and the DEFCON level elevated to two, the most extreme alert before nuclear war.

The quarantine officially began on October 24th. While some Soviet ships carrying nuclear warheads turned back on Khrushchev's secret order, others continued. The US Navy intercepted the tanker Bucharest, but allowed it to pass after confirming it carried only fuel. The first day ended without major incidents, but the crisis was far from over.

5. Brinkmanship and Resolution

At the United Nations on October 25th, Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin accused the US of piracy. US Ambassador Adlai Stevenson dramatically confronted Zorin, presenting U2 photos as irrefutable evidence of missile sites.

Khrushchev initiated a diplomatic solution on October 25th, announcing his willingness to withdraw missiles from Cuba in exchange for a US pledge not to invade the island, aiming to secure Castro's regime. This was conveyed in a "rambling, emotional letter" to Kennedy on October 26th. However, a second, more formal letter, broadcast on Radio Moscow on October 27th, upped the stakes: in addition to Cuba's security, Khrushchev demanded the withdrawal of US Jupiter missiles from Turkey.

October 27th became the most dangerous day of the crisis.

• A US U2 aircraft strayed into Soviet airspace over the Arctic Circle, pursued by Russian fighter jets, prompting the US Air Force to send nuclear-armed fighter jets for rescue. The U2 eventually exited safely.
• A different US U2 aircraft was shot down over Cuba by a Soviet anti-aircraft missile, killing pilot Rudolph Anderson, despite orders from Moscow.
• Fidel Castro, convinced an air strike was imminent, sent a telegram urging Khrushchev to consider a nuclear strike.
• The Soviet submarine B-59, isolated and suffering extreme heat (almost 40°C) and low oxygen, was forced to surface by US depth charges. Its commander, believing war had begun, prepared to launch a 5-kiloton nuclear missile. Executive Officer Vasili Arkhipov famously dissuaded him, averting a nuclear disaster.

Kennedy, aware of the escalating risks, drafted a letter offering to discuss Khrushchev's proposals. Despite his advisers' opposition and concerns about NATO, Kennedy was prepared to meet the demand for withdrawing Jupiter missiles from Turkey. Secretary of State Dean Rusk proposed a secret solution: the US would guarantee the withdrawal of missiles from Turkey later, after the crisis, to save face for NATO. Robert Kennedy conveyed this unofficial offer to Ambassador Dobrynin that evening, citing 4-5 months for NATO procedures and providing a direct White House number for Khrushchev's response.

Khrushchev, astonished by the Turkey offer, immediately accepted. On October 28th, he publicly announced on Radio Moscow the agreement to withdraw missiles from Cuba in exchange for a security guarantee for Castro's government, making no mention of the Turkey missiles as requested by the US.

6. Aftermath and Legacy

The crisis officially ended on October 28th, bringing widespread relief. While most advisers congratulated Kennedy, military chiefs, like Admiral George Anderson, felt "duped" by the abandonment of plans to attack Cuba. Kennedy's perceived victory, forcing the USSR to back down, was celebrated globally.

The peaceful resolution led to improved US-USSR relations. The Moscow-Washington hotline was established, and several nuclear non-proliferation treaties were signed. A 1963 meeting between Dean Rusk and Khrushchev on the Black Sea coast, including a badminton match, symbolized the thawing relations.

However, the transcript offers a critical perspective: Kennedy's "victory" stemmed from a crisis potentially ignited by prior US aggression against Cuba. Fidel Castro was initially furious with Khrushchev's decision but reconciled with the USSR in 1963. Khrushchev successfully protected Cuba, ensuring the regime's survival to this day.

The secret agreement regarding the Turkey missiles was concealed. In February 1963, McNamara and Rusk publicly denied any link between the Turkey withdrawal and the Cuba deal, preserving Kennedy's popularity and the myth that "America would never give in to communism." Khrushchev, who was forced out of office in October 1964, gained no political benefit. The secret agreement was not revealed until 1987.

Synthesis/Conclusion

The Cuban Missile Crisis was a harrowing 13-day period that brought the world to the precipice of nuclear war, largely fueled by a complex interplay of US and Soviet provocations and strategic deployments. While often framed as a decisive victory for President Kennedy, the transcript reveals a more nuanced reality. The crisis originated from US Jupiter missile deployments in Turkey and aggressive covert operations against Cuba (Operation Mongoose). Khrushchev's retaliatory deployment of missiles in Cuba, Operation Anadyr, was a direct response to these threats and the existing nuclear imbalance. The resolution, a naval quarantine, was a carefully chosen path to avoid direct military confrontation, but the ultimate de-escalation hinged on a secret, mutually beneficial agreement: the public withdrawal of Soviet missiles from Cuba in exchange for a US non-invasion pledge and the clandestine removal of US Jupiter missiles from Turkey. This secret deal, kept from the public for decades, allowed both leaders to claim victory and save face, while preventing a global catastrophe. The crisis underscored the extreme dangers of Cold War brinkmanship and led to crucial measures like the Moscow-Washington hotline, highlighting the critical importance of direct communication in preventing future nuclear conflicts.