Phonology: Crash Course Linguistics #10

Key Concepts

• Phonology: The study of sound patterns in a language.
• Phone: Any difference in sound that is relevant for any language. Represented in square brackets [ ].
• Phoneme: A difference in sound that is relevant or meaningful for forming different words in a specific language. Represented in slashes / /.
• Allophones: Different phonetic realizations of the same phoneme.
• Aspiration: A puff of air released when pronouncing certain sounds, particularly voiceless stops.
• Voiceless Stops: Consonants like /p/, /t/, and /k/ produced without vocal cord vibration.
• Assimilation: A phonological process where sounds become more similar to each other.
• Dissimilation: A phonological process where sounds become more distinct from each other.
• Insertion (Epenthesis): A phonological process where a sound is added to a word or phrase.
• Deletion (Elision): A phonological process where a sound is removed from a word or phrase.
• Metathesis: A phonological process where sounds switch positions within a word or phrase.

Phonology: The Study of Sound Patterns

This episode of Crash Course Linguistics introduces the concept of phonology, the study of how sounds function within a language. It highlights that the same sounds can be produced differently depending on context, language, and accent, yet our brains often perceive them as equivalent. This variability is a core aspect of phonology.

The Distinction Between Phones and Phonemes

A crucial distinction is made between phones and phonemes.

• Phones refer to any sound difference that is relevant across any language. For example, the difference between "wadder" and "water" in English is a phone distinction. However, this distinction is not meaningful for English speakers in terms of changing word meaning.
• Phonemes, on the other hand, are sound differences that are meaningful and can change the meaning of words within a specific language. In English, the difference between /t/ and /d/ is a phoneme distinction, as seen in "rabbit" vs. "rabid."

Allophones: Variations of a Phoneme

The concept of allophones is explained as different phonetic realizations of the same phoneme. The example of the /t/ sound in English is used:

• When saying "team" or "tall," an extra burst of air, known as aspiration, is released. This is represented as [tʰ].
• When saying "steam" or "stall," there is no such puff of air. This is represented as [t].

For English speakers, both [tʰ] and [t] are perceived as the same /t/ sound. They are allophones of the /t/ phoneme in English. This is likened to a snowshoe hare that changes its fur color from brown to white depending on the season. The underlying animal is the same, but its appearance varies based on its environment.

Phonemes vs. Allophones: A Case Study in Nepali

The contrast between English and Nepali is used to illustrate the difference between allophones and phonemes.

• In Nepali, the distinction between unaspirated [t] and aspirated [tʰ] is meaningful. For instance, [tal] means 'lake,' while [tʰal] means 'plate.' Therefore, in Nepali, [t] and [tʰ] are considered distinct phonemes.
• In English, these same sounds are phones but not phonemes because they do not change word meaning.

Phonological Rules and Notation

Linguists use specific notation to describe phonological rules. The example of /t/ in English demonstrates this:

• The rule can be stated as: a /t/ is pronounced without aspiration after an /s/ and with aspiration at the beginning of a word.
• This can be written as: /t/ → [tʰ] / #_ (where # represents a word boundary and _ indicates the position).
• This notation helps track phonological rules and train the brain to perceive linguistic patterns, similar to understanding optical illusions.

This rule applies not only to /t/ but also to other voiceless stops like /p/ and /k/ in English. A general rule can be formulated: voiceless stops become aspirated at the beginning of a word.

Common Phonological Processes Across Languages

The video then explores common phonological processes observed across various languages, including signed languages, though their study is less detailed.

1. Assimilation: Sounds become more similar to each other to facilitate production.

   • Example (Spoken): English speakers often pronounce "handbag" as "hambag" by changing /nd/ to /m/. This makes the bilabial sounds easier to produce consecutively.
   • Example (Signed): In Auslan (Australian Sign Language), the sign for 'name' (typically made at the head) is often performed lower (near the cheek) when following the sign for 'my' (made at the chest).

2. Dissimilation: Sounds become more distinct from each other.

   • Example (Spoken): The word 'venom' was historically 'venin.' The two adjacent /n/ sounds were changed to /m/ to create more distinction. Similarly, "cardamom" might be pronounced "cardamon."

3. Insertion (Epenthesis): A sound is added to break up difficult sound sequences.

   • Example (Spoken): The addition of a /p/ in "hamster" or an extra vowel in "umbrella" to make it four syllables.
   • Example (Signed): In Auslan counting, a small movement is often inserted between each number.

4. Deletion (Elision): A sound is removed.

   • Example (Spoken): Contractions like "I've," "it's," and "can't" involve sound deletion. The /i/ sound is also deleted in the middle of "family."
   • Example (Signed): In Auslan, the repetition of a movement in the sign for 'girl' can be deleted in conversation.

5. Metathesis: Sounds switch positions within a word or phrase.

   • Example (Spoken): Old English "thrid" became "third" by switching the /i/ and /r/. This is also the reason for "aks" and "ask."
   • Example (Signed): In ASL, the sign for 'deaf' can be performed from ear to mouth or mouth to ear, demonstrating metathesis.

These processes either simplify production or aid comprehension and are fundamental drivers of language change over time.

Conclusion and Broader Implications

Understanding phonological rules is crucial for various applications, including making synthesized speech technology (like Siri) sound more natural. It also fosters greater empathy and understanding for language learners and speakers. An appreciation for phonology is beneficial in any environment.

The video concludes by promoting PBS's new show "Self-Evident," which explores perseverance in the year 2020, hosted by historian Danielle Bainbridge and therapist Ali Mattu. It is part of the PBS American Portrait project.