Great Heathen Army (Full Episode) | Vikings: The Rise and Fall | National Geographic

Key Concepts

• Viking Raids vs. Conquest: The shift from opportunistic raiding to systematic conquest and settlement.
• Great Heathen Army: A large, organized Viking force that aimed for territorial control rather than just plunder.
• Ivar the Boneless: A prominent Viking leader, instrumental in the conquest of York and the expansion of Viking influence.
• York (Jorvik): A key strategic and economic center that became a Viking stronghold and the capital of a pan-maritime empire.
• Blood Eagle: A legendary and brutal execution method attributed to Vikings, particularly Ivar the Boneless.
• Danelaw: The area of England under Viking control, characterized by Scandinavian law and customs.
• "Things": Viking assemblies for political decision-making, law enforcement, and dispute resolution.
• Viking Settlement and Integration: The process by which Vikings settled, interacted with, and influenced Anglo-Saxon society, language, and culture.
• Slave Trade: A significant economic activity for Vikings, contributing to their wealth and influence.
• Alfred the Great: The Anglo-Saxon king who resisted Viking expansion and laid the groundwork for a unified England.
• Battle of Edington: A pivotal battle where Alfred the Great defeated Guthrum's Viking army.
• Christianization of Vikings: The process of Viking leaders and their followers adopting Christianity, often for strategic and political reasons.
• Viking Trade Networks: Extensive trade routes connecting Scandinavia with Europe, the Silk Roads, and beyond.

The Shift from Raiders to Conquerors: The Viking Impact on Britain

The Dawn of Viking Conquest and Political Ambition

The late 8th century marked the initial phase of Viking activity in Britain and Ireland, characterized by swift and brutal raids on monasteries. However, by the mid-9th century, a significant strategic shift occurred. Vikings began to exhibit a desire for land and political power, moving beyond mere plunder. This transition is exemplified by the actions of Ivar the Boneless, who, after consolidating his power in Ireland, led his "Great Heathen Army" to storm the east coast of Britain, targeting Northumbria and its prosperous capital, York. This marked a new era of Viking strategy, transforming them from ruthless raiders into conquerors, settlers, and political players.

The Political Landscape of Britain and Viking Exploitation

Britain in the mid-9th century was a fragmented mosaic of small, independent kingdoms. In England, warring Anglo-Saxon factions vied for dominance, while the Pictish kingdom controlled much of modern-day Scotland. This absence of a centralized power structure was a key factor that the Vikings exploited. As David Petts notes, "Most of Britain in this period can be divided into two areas. We've got the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms... and to the north... the world of the Picts and the Scots and to the west, Ireland." Anders Winroth further emphasizes this point: "So, there is no central English king nor any central Scottish king. It's a very localized society. The Vikings drew advantage of that. They knew that they would not meet very strong forces."

Forging Alliances and Manipulating Rivalries

The Nordic marauders adeptly infiltrated this fractious political landscape. They forged unlikely alliances, manipulating local rivalries and uniting opposing groups in feuds against common enemies, but only when it served the Viking cause. Clare Downham highlights an example: "The Cornish are a separate kingdom at this point, and their allying with Vikings was an opportunity to attack the English in the neighboring kingdom of Wessex." This familiarity between British peoples and Vikings grew in the years leading up to the 860s.

The Paradox of Pagan Raiders and Religious Sites

Despite developing an understanding of the island's culture, the pagan Vikings displayed a notable disrespect for Christian religious sites. They plundered valuable religious items, such as the illuminated gospel book, the Codex Aureus, but then ransomed it back. Downham points out the significance of this: "Vikings aren't just raiding in this period. There's negotiations between English-speaking peoples and Vikings from this very early period." This demonstrates a complex interaction beyond simple destruction, involving negotiation and economic exchange. The relationship between Vikings and the native populations was multifaceted, with periods of conflict, alliance, and even intermarriage, as Petts observes: "Sometimes they're fighting each other, sometimes they're allied with each other, sometimes the kings are intermarrying with their families. It's a complicated political and social world."

The Siege of York: A Turning Point

In 866, York, a thriving metropolis and a significant economic hub, became a prime target for the Vikings. Its capture would signify a major blow to the established order. Petts describes Northumbria's former extent, noting it was divided into Bernicia and Deira. York, a former Roman settlement, was a heavily fortified power center with a bishop and multiple churches, indicating its importance to the Northumbrian kings and royal family. Winroth adds that York was "an important trade port. It was an important center for merchants trading and for artisans making things." The surrounding area was a well-developed farming landscape, which would have been attractive to the Vikings, not only for its potential wealth but also for its agricultural resources.

The Arrival of the Great Heathen Army

In the years preceding the seizure of York, a "great army" arrived on England's east coast. This force, led by Ivar the Boneless, was a substantial military undertaking, described in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as a "mycel haepen" (Great Heathen Army). Stefan Brink states, "And that is a combined effort by Scandinavians, with probably thousands of warriors coming into eastern England." Petts clarifies that "This is essentially an army on campaign rather than a small series of warriors just doing quick raids." This army, likely composed of multiple subgroups under various leaders, represented a more substantial armed group than previously seen.

Ivar the Boneless: Legend and Reality

Ivar the Boneless became infamous through Irish and Anglo-Saxon literature, with tales of his savage career. The origin of his nickname is debated, with theories suggesting a skeletal condition or his towering stature. Downham notes his activity in Ireland in the 850s, suggesting he may have brought some of his retinue from Ireland to England. His campaigns were responsible for large swathes of England falling under Viking control. Winroth suggests that reading Icelandic sagas provides insight into Viking life, as they "took a lot of the stories that they had heard from the Viking Age and developed them into these marvelous, complicated, complex, and elaborate stories."

Revenge as a Motivator: The Saga of Ragnar Lothbrok

According to the sagas, Ivar's attack on York was driven by a desire for revenge for his father, Ragnar Lothbrok, who was allegedly killed by the Anglo-Saxon king Aella, the ruler of York. Brink explains, "Ragnar Lothbrok had been killed by Aella by being thrown into a snake pit, so Ivar was out for revenge for his father and he was after Aella." The sagas depict Ragnar as a formidable warrior who met his end attempting to conquer Britain.

The Fall of York

On November 1st, All Saints' Day, a significant Christian feast day, the Vikings attacked York. Petts argues that attacking on such a day, when royal feasting would be expected, indicates an interest in political control rather than just economic resources. The goal was to "take out the top level of Northumbrian kingship." The city's walls ultimately failed to withstand the assault, and Anglo-Saxon blood stained the streets. Brink confirms, "Eventually, the Scandinavians conquer York, capturing Aella."

The Blood Eagle and the Renaming of York

Ivar's revenge was exacted upon Aella through the dreaded Blood Eagle, a ritualistic torture described in the sagas. Brink explains, "The Blood Eagle is you dismember all the ribs from the spine and then you pull out the lungs, which then looks like an eagle." While its historical accuracy is debated, the sagas recount this brutal execution. Following the conquest, the Scandinavians renamed York "Jorvik," and Winroth states, "The Vikings take over. They install themselves as kings." For a considerable period, York became a vital Viking trading center.

A New Society in Jorvik: Fusion and Coexistence

York became the centerpiece of Ivar's empire, complementing his Irish stronghold in Dublin. The defeated Anglo-Saxons and their new Scandinavian overlords were forced to coexist. Winroth describes York after the conquest as "a very mixed society. You have a lot of Scandinavians moving in." He notes that medieval English people were accustomed to conflict and new rulers, making the Viking takeover "really more of the same."

Paganism and Cultural Exchange

The paganism of the Vikings unsettled the Christian population of York. They may have witnessed pagan rituals and war dances honoring gods like Thor and Odin. Viking beliefs fostered a readiness for battle and a willingness to die a noble warrior's death, making them fierce and seemingly otherworldly. However, the Vikings were also practical rulers, managing the city similarly to their Anglo-Saxon predecessors. This led to a merging of cultures, influencing the landscape, language, and daily life in York.

Linguistic Influence: The Legacy of Old Norse

The arrival of Vikings brought their language, which significantly influenced English. Winroth explains that "the English language today is full of Scandinavian loanwords, which came to English through the settlers in eastern England, especially in the northeast." Old Norse was not drastically different from Old English, allowing for communication and language acquisition. Judith Jesch provides the example of the third-person plural pronouns: "In Old English, people said hie, him, hira. In Old Norse, they said their, theim, theira, and that gives us they, them, and their." The assimilation of these words indicates the substantial number of Scandinavian settlers.

Craftsmanship and Design: The Ormside Bowl

Trends in craft and design also evolved, exemplified by the Ormside Bowl. Petts describes it as "a really wonderful piece of Scandinavian art and design." While featuring elements of both Viking and early English design, it showcases an "incredible dialogue between all of these metalwork styles," making it difficult to distinguish between purely Viking or English origins. This fusion highlights the blurring of cultural boundaries.

The Rise of a Viking Empire and Economic Power

With York as their base, the Vikings established a formidable kingdom. Hjardar considers York "one of the most successful Viking empires," becoming a significant power factor in northern England. Petts emphasizes the shift from settlement to land distribution: "It's no longer just giving people portable wealth, they're actually giving people land and estates on which Vikings can actually settle." York flourished under Viking control, experiencing population and economic growth, with archaeological evidence revealing extensive trade networks across the Viking world.

Extensive Trade Networks and Archaeological Insights

Opportunities for commerce were abundant, with well-established, long-distance trade networks connecting the Nordic settlers to Europe and beyond. Excavations at Coppergate in central York provide a unique glimpse into Viking life. Downham notes the diversity of Viking experience, from locally manufactured items like hair combs to exotic imports such as silk, cowrie shells from the Indian Ocean, and silver coins from Central Asia, demonstrating trade links eastward into Russia and Central Asia. This paints a picture of Vikings as a sophisticated culture involved in extensive trade and craftsmanship, rather than mere thugs.

The Profitable Slave Trade

Beyond trade in furs, silver, jewels, and silks, the slave trade was a highly profitable venture for the Vikings. Brink states, "People was a very, very precious commodity." Downham explains that Vikings became important go-betweens in the emerging slave trade of the 9th and 10th centuries. Slavery was a common practice in early medieval societies, and for Vikings, it was a means of acquiring portable loot. Ownership of slaves was also a status symbol. Notably, even churches were significant slave owners.

Viking Campaigns and the Rise of Guthrum

Ivar the Boneless conquered Northumbria and extended his campaigns into Scotland before returning to Dublin. Subsequently, a second army arrived from Scandinavia, led by Guthrum. Petts describes Viking armies as "coalitions... held together by one or two powerful individuals." Downham points out that Vikings were not a homogeneous force but comprised different groups with their own leaders, and there could have been rivalry between them. Guthrum's army targeted and easily conquered the kingdom of East Anglia.

Alfred the Great and the Battle of Edington

The only remaining Anglo-Saxon kingdom was Wessex, led by the young King Alfred. In January 878, Viking forces attacked Alfred's court, leading to a precarious situation for Wessex. Alfred, however, managed to gather a force and, after months of guerrilla warfare, achieved a decisive victory at the Battle of Edington. This led to Guthrum's surrender.

The Treaty of Edington and Christianization

Alfred, now known as Alfred the Great, allowed the Vikings to settle in England but away from Wessex borders. A key demand in the peace treaty was Guthrum's baptism as a Christian. Downham suggests that conversion to Christianity was a strategic technique for enforcing political obedience, and Guthrum "happily agreed to this." Petts notes that Vikings were a militarily powerful minority, and integration was necessary for maintaining power. Conversion to Christianity offered strategic advantages, embedding them into wider European culture, providing symbolic support, and offering practical, bureaucratic assistance for running a kingdom.

The Echoes of Paganism and the Flowering of Stone Sculpture

Despite embracing Christianity, the Vikings' pagan past continued to influence Britain. The conversion of Vikings led to a "sudden flowering of stone sculpture associated with churches," such as the Middleton Cross, which depicts a Viking lord with his weapons, emphasizing their warrior ideology. This highlights the enduring warrior identity of the Vikings, even as they settled and became farmers.

The Repton Discovery: Uncovering Warrior Culture

In the 1980s, excavations at a medieval churchyard in Repton uncovered evidence of Viking warrior culture. A large mound contained the remains of nearly 300 individuals. Modern science, including isotope analysis of teeth, helped determine the geographical backgrounds of these individuals, suggesting they were Scandinavian or from further afield.

The Repton Warrior and Speculation about Ivar

One burial, that of the "Repton Warrior," was accompanied by numerous artifacts, including a Viking-type sword and a Thor's hammer pendant. Hjardar speculates that this might have been Ivar the Boneless, whose body was carried to the border. The warrior's violent death, involving a spear through the skull and dismemberment, along with a boar's tusk placed between his legs, suggests an attempt to prepare him for the final voyage to Valhalla. The mass burial indicates that bodies were collected from elsewhere, possibly battle sites, and moved to Repton, signifying a long-term Scandinavian presence and a desire to make a permanent mark.

The Danelaw: A Scandinavian Zone

By the late 9th century, large swathes of England were under Viking control, forming the Danelaw, where Scandinavian law was applicable. Brink notes that the exact extent of Anglo-Saxon law versus new Scandinavian law in this area is uncertain. Petts describes the Danelaw as a "big wedge of Scandinavian-controlled land, which is really different from the kingdom of Wessex."

Viking Governance: "Things" and Social Order

Viking communities were structured with a hierarchy of lords, chieftains, and local rulers. Public assemblies, known as "things," allowed for negotiation between leaders and citizens. These assemblies, often chaired by a local ruler or judge, were where political decisions were made, laws upheld, and disputes settled. Downham emphasizes that despite stereotypes of Vikings being lawless, they had social structures and mechanisms for dealing with problems, with the English word "law" itself originating from Old Norse.

The Crystallization of England and the Reconquest

As the 9th century ended, Wessex, under Alfred the Great, began to push back against the Danes. The 10th century saw England crystallize as a single nation, with the kings of Wessex gradually regaining lands under Viking control. Jesch states, "The 10th century, I suppose, is the time when England crystallizes as a single nation." This process led to the creation of the kingdom now known as England.

Viking Settlement and Integration: A Lasting Imprint

The kings of Wessex pushed the Danes back to an area surrounding York. Athelstan became the first king of England. Downham highlights the narrative of Viking settlement and integration, which left a significant imprint on England through place names, dialects, and accents. This acculturation created a new cultural hybrid in various regions.

The Return of the Vikings and Global Networks

Despite the formation of a unified English kingdom, Viking presence continued to menace Britain. They would return to raid and eventually mount campaigns to conquer the island. Simultaneously, their influence grew globally. A single glass bead found at Repton reveals vast trade networks linking Viking strongholds in Europe to the Silk Roads, Constantinople, and Baghdad, demonstrating the extent of their ambition and empire-building.