El VIRREINATO DE NUEVA ESPAÑA: ascenso y caída del Imperio español

Key Concepts:

• Viceroyalty of New Spain: A territorial entity of the Spanish Empire in the Americas.
• Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire, its fall marked the origin of the Viceroyalty.
• Hernán Cortés: Conqueror of the Aztec Empire, proposed the name "New Spain."
• Viceroy: Representative of the King of Spain in New Spain.
• Peninsulares: Spaniards born in Spain, held the most important positions.
• Creoles: Children of Spaniards born in America, led revolts against the Viceroyalty.
• Council of the Indies: First body administering the conquered territory.
• Audiencia de México: Court of justice and political management body.
• Spiritual Conquest: Conversion of natives to Catholicism.
• Bourbon Reforms: Administrative reforms in the 18th century.
• Intendancies: New territorial divisions under the Bourbon Reforms.
• Miscegenation: Mixing of races, creating a mestizo society.
• Castes: Social strata based on racial mixing.
• Mining and Agriculture: Main economic activities.
• Encomienda System: Right to exploit indigenous labor.
• Hacienda: Large land estates.
• Quinto Real: Tax on mining, 20% to the Crown.

Origin and Rise of New Spain:

• The Viceroyalty originated after the fall of Tenochtitlan, with Hernán Cortés suggesting the name "New Spain" to King Carlos V in 1520, citing its similarity to Spain in fertility, size, and climate.
• The Council of the Indies was established in 1523 to draft laws for the new territories, subject to the monarch's approval.
• The Audiencia de México was formed in 1529, but its initial ineffectiveness led to a second Audiencia in 1531 under Sebastián Ramírez de Fuenleal.
• Administrative problems led Carlos I to establish the Viceroyalty of New Spain in 1535, with Antonio de Mendoza as the first Viceroy.

Brief History and Key Figures:

• The Viceroyalty existed from 1535 to 1821, encompassing present-day Mexico, Central America, parts of the United States, the Philippines, and the West Indies.
• Antonio de Mendoza, the first Viceroy, focused on political organization and defense, introducing the first printing press and educational centers.
• The "spiritual conquest" aimed to convert natives to Catholicism, led by Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustinians, with differing approaches to conversion.
• Luís de Velasco, Mendoza's successor, enforced the New Laws protecting indigenous people and oversaw the creation of the University of Mexico in 1553.
• In 1565, the Philippines became dependent on New Spain, boosting trade between Acapulco and Manila.
• Martín Enríquez defended Veracruz from English attempts and expanded the territory to Sonora and Saltillo, decreeing that Creoles could hold lower-rank public office.

17th and 18th Centuries:

• The 17th century was marked by relative peace, interrupted by indigenous rebellions like that of Gaspar Yanga in 1609.
• Luis Velasco, Jr., and Gaspar Zúñiga promoted expeditions to annex territories like Monterrey.
• Juan Palafox implemented reforms to combat corruption.
• Gaspar de la Cerda Sandoval prevented French settlement on the Texas coast and organized an expedition to retake Santo Domingo.
• The 18th century saw the Bourbon dynasty take over, leading to renewed emphasis on education with new institutions like the Royal Academy of Fine Arts and the Mining College.
• The first newspaper, El Mercurio Volante, was published in 1693, followed by La Gaceta de México in 1728.

Carlos III and the Bourbon Reforms:

• Carlos III acquired Spanish Louisiana and Spanish Florida.
• He sent Antonio de Ulloa to advise Viceroy Bernardo de Gálvez, leading to significant public administration reforms.
• The Bourbon Reforms in 1786 divided the Viceroyalty into 12 intendancies, reducing the Viceroy's power by assigning political, economic, and administrative control to the heads of each intendancy.

End of the Viceroyalty:

• The French invasion of Spain, social inequality, limited Creole roles, and viceroy mismanagement led to the Viceroyalty's dissolution.
• The 1812 Constitution of Cadiz and Napoleon Bonaparte's rise fueled rebellions.
• The War of Independence culminated in 1821, ending Spanish rule and leading to Mexico's brief empire and subsequent republic.

General Characteristics:

• The Viceroyalty's territory included present-day Mexico, much of the southern and central United States, parts of Canada, Central American countries, and Caribbean islands, as well as the Philippines and other Asian and Oceanian islands.
• A mestizo society emerged, but racial differences persisted, with peninsulares holding the highest positions.
• The indigenous population declined due to mistreatment and diseases.
• The Viceroyalty was divided into kingdoms, captain generals, and lordships, hierarchically organized with the Viceroy as the highest authority.

Political and Social Organization:

• The King of Spain held supreme authority, delegating power to the Viceroy.
• The Royal Court of Mexico, established in 1527, served as the main justice institution.
• Provincial courts and governorships decentralized administration.
• The Catholic Church played a significant role in converting natives, monopolizing education, and becoming a major landowner.
• The population consisted of peninsular Spaniards, Creoles, mestizos, indigenous people, and African slaves, each with distinct rights and roles.
• Miscegenation led to the creation of castes, with about 53 different groups distinguished, each occupying a specific social stratum. Examples include Mestizo (Spanish and indigenous), Castizo (Spanish and mestizo), Mulatto (Spanish and black), Morisco (Spanish and mulatto), and Albino (Spanish and Morisco).

Viceregal Economy:

• The economy was primarily extractive, focusing on mining and agriculture.
• Mining was the main industry, with significant gold and silver deposits in Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and Taxco.
• The Crown imposed the Quinto Real tax, taking 20% of mining profits.
• The Encomienda system initially rewarded conquerors with indigenous labor, later replaced by royal grants and haciendas.
• The Catholic Church controlled a significant portion of land and capital.
• Trade was regulated to benefit Spain, with Veracruz and Acapulco as main ports.
• Monopolies and taxes, such as the alcabalas, led to smuggling and rebellions.

Synthesis/Conclusion:

The Viceroyalty of New Spain was a complex colonial entity shaped by conquest, administration, and social stratification. From its origins in the Aztec Empire's fall to its dissolution amidst independence movements, the Viceroyalty underwent significant transformations in its political structure, economic activities, and social dynamics. Key aspects included the imposition of Spanish rule, the conversion of indigenous populations, the development of a mestizo society, and the exploitation of natural resources. The Bourbon Reforms aimed to modernize administration but also contributed to growing discontent among Creoles, ultimately leading to the end of Spanish rule and the emergence of independent Mexico.