Discovering Lost Tombs Around the Globe | MEGA EPISODE SPECIAL | National Geographic

Key Concepts

• Tutankhamun's Treasures: The vast collection of artifacts discovered in Tutankhamun's tomb, now being reunited at the Grand Egyptian Museum.
• Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM): A new, $1-billion museum housing Tutankhamun's treasures and other Egyptian artifacts.
• Forensic Technology and DNA Analysis: Advanced scientific methods used to study ancient remains and unlock historical mysteries.
• Child Mummies: Two premature stillborn girls found buried with Tutankhamun, whose DNA was analyzed to determine their relationship to him.
• Club Foot and Genetic Illness: Tutankhamun's physical deformities, including club foot, potentially linked to inherited genetic conditions.
• Incestuous Relationships: The practice of close family members marrying within Tutankhamun's royal family, leading to genetic issues.
• Pedigree Collapse: A term describing the abnormal narrowing of a family tree due to repeated intermarriage.
• Akhenaten: Tutankhamun's father, whose reign was marked by religious upheaval and unusual artistic depictions.
• Chariots: Highly functional military equipment found in Tutankhamun's tomb, suggesting his need for advanced mobility.
• Chariot Accident Theory: A potential cause of Tutankhamun's death, based on injuries observed on his mummy.
• Ay: A senior official who performed the "opening of the mouth" ceremony on Tutankhamun's mummy, suggesting he was the successor.
• King Lists and Erasure from History: The deliberate omission of Tutankhamun and other rulers from official records.
• Alexander the Great's Tomb: The ongoing search for the lost burial site of Alexander the Great in Alexandria, Egypt.
• Pepi Papakosta: An archaeologist leading the search for Alexander the Great's tomb.
• Shallalat Gardens: The excavation site in Alexandria where Pepi Papakosta is searching for Alexander's tomb.
• Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT): A geophysical method used to map underground structures.
• Genghis Khan's Tomb: The elusive burial site of Genghis Khan, sought after for centuries.
• Albert Lin: An explorer and scientist leading the search for Genghis Khan's tomb using advanced technology and citizen science.
• Burkhan Khaldun: A sacred mountain in Mongolia believed by some to be the location of Genghis Khan's tomb.
• Human Computation Network: A crowdsourcing platform used to analyze satellite imagery for potential archaeological sites.
• OktoKopter: A drone used for aerial imaging and surveying.
• Thermoluminescent Dating and Carbon Dating: Scientific methods used to determine the age of artifacts.
• Pyramids of Giza: The ancient tombs of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure, and the ongoing investigation into their missing mummies.
• Ashraf Mohie El Din: Director of the Giza Plateau, leading excavations in the Southern Field.
• Southern Field: An unexplored area of the Giza Plateau where new discoveries are being made.
• Tomb Robbery in Ancient Egypt: The historical problem of looting tombs, even those of pharaohs.
• Mark Lehner: A leading expert on the Great Pyramids, investigating tomb robbery methods.
• Pyramid Texts: Magic spells inscribed in pyramids to aid the deceased in the afterlife.
• Late Period Egyptians: Ancient Egyptians who idolized the pyramid pharaohs and re-used older burial sites.
• Colleen Darnell: An expert in ancient Egyptian texts, studying the reasons for re-burials and the idolization of pharaohs.
• Amira Shahin: An osteoarcheologist analyzing skeletal remains.

Tutankhamun's Treasures and the Man Behind the Mask

The discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb in 1922 by Howard Carter revealed over 5,398 objects, many of which have remained unseen for a century. These treasures are now being brought together for the first time at the new $1-billion Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM). Scientists are utilizing advanced imaging and forensic technology to study these artifacts, aiming to uncover the life of the "boy king."

Personal Tragedies and Illness

The most personal items from Tutankhamun's tomb suggest a pharaoh who suffered from illness and experienced profound personal loss.

• Child Mummies: Among the most unsettling discoveries were two miniature sarcophagi containing the mummified skeletons of premature, stillborn girls. DNA analysis conducted by Albert Zink at the Eurac Institute for Mummy Studies in Italy indicated a likely familial relationship between these fetuses and Tutankhamun, suggesting they were his own children. This finding points to Tutankhamun as a grieving father.
• Fragile Remains: The condition of these fetuses is extremely poor, with concerns about decay and insect invasion. Conservators at the GEM are undertaking urgent preservation efforts to prevent their disintegration, highlighting the sensitivity of organic materials to environmental changes.
• Walking Sticks and Adapted Shoes: The examination of over 130 walking sticks found in the tomb, some showing signs of wear, along with specially adapted shoes with extra straps, suggests Tutankhamun had mobility issues. Egyptologists Salima Ikram and Andre Veldmeijer noted that some shoes were designed to fit more snugly, implying a need for additional support.
• Physical Deformities: Anatomical investigations of Tutankhamun's mummy, including X-rays and CT scans, have revealed anomalies not expected in a healthy 19-year-old. His left foot is rotated inwards, and the second toe is missing a bone, suggesting he suffered from club foot, a condition likely causing him constant pain and difficulty walking. Podiatrist Ron McCulloch created a 3D model to demonstrate how these deformities would have profoundly affected his gait and balance, making activities like standing at ceremonies or being in a chariot challenging.
• Possible Chariot Accident: An X-ray of Tutankhamun's mummy shows a missing section of his ribcage and pelvis, indicative of blunt trauma. This has led to the theory that he may have died in a chariot accident, possibly while attempting to lead his country in war despite his disabilities.

A Troubled Royal Family Tree

The forensic examinations also shed light on the complex and disturbing family tree of Tutankhamun.

• Incestuous Marriages: DNA studies by Albert Zink revealed that Tutankhamun's parents, Akhenaten and an unknown woman, were closely related, likely brother and sister. This practice of interfamily marriage was common among Egyptian royalty, who believed they were descended from gods and sought to maintain their divine bloodline.
• Pedigree Collapse and Genetic Consequences: Surgeon Hutan Ashrafian explained the concept of "pedigree collapse" in incestuous family trees, where weaker genes are transmitted through generations, leading to disease and deformity. The statues of Tutankhamun's father, Akhenaten, depict unusual physical characteristics, such as a long face and feminine fat distribution, which are likely results of generations of inbreeding.
• Stillbirths as a Consequence: The incestuous tradition is believed to have contributed to miscarriages and stillbirths, with Tutankhamun's two stillborn daughters being a direct consequence of his own incestuous relationship with his sister. This genetic inheritance may have also played a part in Tutankhamun's early death.
• Erasure from History: Tutankhamun, his father Akhenaten, and his successor Ay were erased from official history. King lists created later, such as one from the reign of Ramses II, omit Tutankhamun, Akhenaten, and Ay, indicating a deliberate campaign to condemn and forget them.

The Grand Egyptian Museum and Preservation Efforts

The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM) plays a crucial role in preserving and displaying Tutankhamun's legacy.

• Reuniting Treasures: The GEM is bringing together all 5,398 objects from Tutankhamun's tomb, many of which have been hidden for decades.
• Conservation and Assessment: Before public display, all artifacts undergo conservation and assessment to ensure their preservation.
• Preserving Fragile Remains: The GEM team is implementing advanced techniques to preserve the fragile remains of Tutankhamun's stillborn daughters, creating an oxygen-free microenvironment to prevent further deterioration. Director Tarek Tawfik emphasizes the sensitivity and importance of this operation.

The Legacy of Tutankhamun

Tutankhamun, the last pharaoh of his royal family line, died at age 19 without heirs. His dynasty collapsed within decades, and he was largely forgotten for 3,000 years. The comprehensive forensic examinations of his treasures are now "fleshing out" the boy king, revealing him as a father, husband, and leader with ambitions tragically cut short by his family's toxic bloodline.

The Hunt for Alexander the Great's Tomb

Archaeologist Pepi Papakosta is on a quest to find the lost tomb of Alexander the Great in Alexandria, Egypt. This search is considered the "holy grail" of archaeology.

Locating the Lost City

Pepi is combining ancient manuscripts with modern technology to pinpoint the location of Alexander's lost city.

• Ancient Sources: She relies on Greek and Roman sources, such as the geographer Strabo, who described Alexander being buried within the royal quarter of the city he founded. However, these sources were written centuries after his death.
• Modern Alexandria: The ancient city is now buried beneath modern Alexandria, making excavation challenging. Pepi is digging in the Shallalat Gardens, a large public park, as one of the few areas not covered by urban sprawl.
• Excavation Process: Her team has excavated over 30 feet of earth, sifting through modern, Byzantine, and Roman layers to reach the Greek level from Alexander's time. They have encountered significant challenges with water management, requiring continuous pumping to prevent flooding.
• Identifying the Royal Quarter: By overlaying historical maps with satellite imagery, Pepi has identified the likely location of the ancient city's crossroads and the Royal Quarter, which would have contained the tomb. She has also uncovered a road, "L2," which she believes is parallel to the main Canopic street described by Strabo.

Significant Discoveries

Pepi's excavations have yielded several significant finds:

• Statue of Alexander the Great: A major discovery was a magnificent marble statue believed to be of Alexander himself, unearthed over 20 feet below the surface. This find generated international attention.
• Greek Artifacts: The team has found numerous Greek artifacts, including pot shards with black glaze and amphora handles stamped with makers' names and dates, indicating trade and cultural exchange.
• Macedonian Tomb Decoration: Fragments of plaster with intense blue color, similar to that found in the tomb of Alexander's father, Philip II, have been discovered, suggesting Macedonian tomb decoration.
• Greek White Marble: The presence of Greek white marble, which is not naturally found in the Nile delta, is considered a very encouraging sign.
• Vast Foundation Stones: The team has uncovered massive foundation stones extending for over 200 feet, indicating the presence of a very large building from the Greek-Ptolemaic period.
• Tunnel Discovery: A man-made tunnel was discovered, but it was blocked by rubble and scorch marks, suggesting it had been sealed for centuries and was too dangerous to excavate further.
• Anomaly E3B: Geophysical surveys identified 14 anomalies, with the largest, E3B, being a potential target. However, excavation at E3B revealed a defensive ditch for Islamic walls, indicating later modifications to the city.

The Royal Cemetery and Ongoing Search

Pepi's research suggests that the Royal Quarter also contained a royal burial precinct called the Sema, or "valley of the kings." Ptolemaic rulers were buried around Alexander, seeking to be close to him for eternity.

• Ptolemaic Dynasty: Ptolemy, one of Alexander's generals, became ruler of Egypt, and his dynasty lasted for 275 years.
• Future Prospects: While Alexander's tomb has not yet been found, Pepi has identified the Royal Quarter and believes the tomb lies within it. She has permission to excavate the entire Shallalat Gardens and plans to use advanced technology, including Electrical Resistivity Tomography (ERT), to guide further digging. The search continues, with Pepi expressing optimism and determination.

The Quest for Genghis Khan's Tomb

Albert Lin is leading an ambitious expedition to find the secret burial site of Genghis Khan, a mystery that has eluded explorers for centuries.

Historical Clues and Legends

The search is guided by historical texts and legends, many of which are centuries old and lack definitive geographical markers.

• Sacred Mountain: A prominent legend points to a sacred mountain called Burkhan Khaldun as the potential location of the tomb. However, the exact location of this mountain is unknown, and no maps exist from that era.
• Genghis Khan's Life and Death: Genghis Khan, born Temujin, rose from humble beginnings to conquer a vast empire. Legends surrounding his death vary, including murder by a concubine, death from typhus, or a hunting accident. His death was kept a state secret to maintain the stability of his empire.
• Forbidden Zone: The search is focused on the Khentii Mountain Range, specifically an area known as the Ikh Khorig, or "Forbidden Zone," which was historically restricted.

Technological and Citizen Science Approach

Albert Lin is employing cutting-edge technologies and a global network of citizen scientists to overcome the challenges of this search.

• Human Computation Network: A website has been launched where the public can analyze high-resolution satellite imagery to identify potential archaeological sites. Hundreds of thousands of "citizen scientists" are scanning images and tagging anything unusual.
• Advanced Tools: The expedition utilizes tools such as GPS, data pads, OktoKopters (flying robots with cameras), electro-magnetometers, and ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to survey the terrain and detect subsurface anomalies without invasive digging.
• Logistical Challenges: The team faces significant logistical hurdles, including difficult terrain, extreme weather, vehicle breakdowns, and river crossings, mirroring the challenges faced by Genghis Khan's funeral escort.
• Team Expertise: Albert Lin has assembled a "dream team" of experts in robotics, data mining, 3D imaging, and archaeology, including National Geographic's Archaeology Fellow Dr. Fred Hiebert and Mongolian history authority Prof. Tsogt-ochiryn Ishdorj.

Discoveries and Progress

The expedition has made several promising discoveries:

• Bronze Age Tombs: Citizen scientists identified a Bronze Age tomb, confirming the effectiveness of the human computation network and providing clues that burials are located on the south side of mountains.
• Potential Temple Structure: At a site designated "ARC Site 1" on the southeastern flank of a mountain believed to be Burkhan Khaldun, geophysical surveys revealed a large, man-made structure with walls.
• Dating of Artifacts: Thermoluminescent and carbon dating of pottery tiles and burnt wood samples from ARC Site 1 yielded dates from the 13th and 14th centuries, aligning with the time of Genghis Khan and his sons.
• Buried Structure: GPR scans revealed a significant buried structure, possibly a temple with a burial chamber beneath it, located within the identified walls.
• Sacred Mountain Significance: The presence of an "Ovoo" (a shrine of blue prayer flags) at ARC Site 1 indicates that the location has been considered holy for a long time, potentially predating Genghis Khan.

The Ongoing Mystery

While significant progress has been made, the exact location of Genghis Khan's tomb remains elusive. The team is presenting their findings to the Mongolian government to advocate for the protection of the sacred mountain and further research. The legend of Genghis Khan's burial being deliberately hidden, with his grave trampled by horses and covered by a forest, continues to fuel the mystery.

The Missing Mummies of the Pyramid Pharaohs

The discovery of a stone inscribed with the name of Pharaoh Khafre in the Southern Field of the Giza Plateau has reignited the mystery of the missing mummies of the pyramid kings: Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure.

The Enigmatic Southern Field

Ashraf Mohie El Din, director of the Giza Plateau, is leading a large-scale excavation in the Southern Field, an area previously unexplored by modern archaeologists.

• Extensive Excavation: Over an eight-month period, a team of over 60 workers is removing hundreds of tons of sand to uncover what lies beneath.
• Initial Discoveries: The excavation has already yielded a carved limestone block inscribed with Khafre's name, suggesting a connection to the pyramid pharaohs. Numerous clay pottery jars, mudbrick structures believed to be tomb walls, and dozens of burial shafts have also been unearthed.
• Necropolis Revealed: The Southern Field is proving to be a significant necropolis, a vast cemetery dating back 4,500 years, with tombs and burial shafts from the Old Kingdom.
• Mass Grave and Golden Coffin: A particularly astonishing discovery is an interconnected network of underground chambers forming a mass grave containing numerous skeletal remains, bandages, and a coffin adorned with gold sheets, suggesting a high-status individual.

The Problem of Tomb Robbery

The disappearance of the pyramid pharaohs' mummies is attributed to ancient tomb robbers.

• Fortified Tombs: The pyramids were designed as massive fortresses with sophisticated anti-theft mechanisms, including concealed entrances, granite slabs, and locking systems.
• Ingenious Robbery: Mark Lehner, a leading expert on the pyramids, explains that robbers tunneled through the pyramid's blocks to access internal passages and bypass security measures.
• Mummies Left Behind: While robbers took treasures, they may have feared the sacred remains of the pharaohs and left their mummified bodies behind. However, the mummies of Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure have never been found.

The Role of Late Period Egyptians

A significant twist in the investigation involves the Late Period Egyptians, who lived 2,000 years after the pyramid pharaohs.

• Re-use of Burial Sites: Late Period Egyptians re-used the Southern Field as a cemetery, burying their dead in new shafts and even inside Old Kingdom tombs. The coffins found are from this later period, distinct from Old Kingdom burial practices.
• Idolization of Pyramid Pharaohs: Dr. Colleen Darnell explains that Late Period Egyptians idolized the pyramid pharaohs as gods, possibly due to the "Pyramid Texts" found in later pyramids, which described the king's ascent to divinity.
• Protection and Preservation: It is theorized that these Late Period Egyptians, in their reverence for the pyramid pharaohs, may have found the looted bodies and re-wrapped and re-buried them in unmarked graves to protect them from further desecration. This mirrors the actions taken during the New Kingdom, where pharaohs' mummies were moved to a hidden tomb for safekeeping.

Menkaure's Coffin: A Key Clue

The discovery of a wooden coffin inscribed for Menkaure, found in his pyramid, provides crucial evidence.

• Late Period Style: The coffin's style is identical to Late Period burials, suggesting it was placed in Menkaure's pyramid 2,000 years after his death.
• Re-burial Theory: This indicates that Late Period Egyptians likely entered Menkaure's tomb, found his body (possibly looted), re-wrapped it, and placed it in a new coffin, effectively performing a second funeral.

Ongoing Search and Future Prospects

The Southern Field continues to yield discoveries, including the tomb of a high priest and a golden coffin containing the remains of a young woman who underwent ancient surgery. While the mummies of the pyramid pharaohs have not yet been definitively found, the ongoing excavations and the evidence of Late Period re-burials offer hope. Ashraf remains committed to the search, believing that the Southern Field may still hold the key to solving the mystery of the missing pyramid pharaohs.